As a black man in the 21st century, my perspective on society stands apart from some of those around me, since I’m always longing for black liberation. Growing up, it hadn’t always been as prevalent as it is now, but as my personal media landscape changed, so did the scope of my lens.
As the idea of liberation of the oppressed has become less of a taboo across the rest of society (and more of a trend), things have shaken up. Not only on the side of the masses, but the ruling class, too. Corporations, politicians, and people in other walks of life have all co-opted liberation in the form of media representation.
If you’re wondering how they were able to co-opt liberation without an uproar from the masses, you can look at something like Washington D.C. Mayor Muriel Bowser’s response to the Black Lives Matter protests of 2020. She implemented the Black Lives Matter Plaza on June 5th, 2020 with a large “BLACK LIVES MATTER” mural running down its road. While this did not do much to help D.C.’s black community, it was great for positive publicity.
The publicity of the situation was enough to keep political flak off of Bowser, but community members weren’t as pleased. D.C.’s Black Lives Matter group described the event as “performative and a distraction from her active counter organizing to our demands to decrease the police budget and invest in the community.” This type of performative distraction has widened the disconnect between politicians and their communities, as politicians use media representation as a way to return to the status quo rather than meeting community demands.
While having representation in the media does allow minority groups to have on-screen role models & cultural icons, the refusal to acknowledge the truths of minority groups has a host of side effects, including turning them into monoliths and endangering them mentally, physically and socially by failing to acknowledge those who fall outside of the ‘traditional’ mold.
Although representation has been ever-present in the media landscape since the successes of the Civil Rights Era, it has often represented the era’s failures. Before June 2020, a majority of commercial faces were white. Colorism was (and is) prevalent in our society, and there are still a vast amount of people who have participated in some type of racist activity in America. Whether they’re aware of it or not.
While the presence of color in white spaces was nothing new, seeing minorities represented on-screen in a way that didn’t reinforce some type of stereotype was rare. Hell, you can look at the late 2000s and find YouTubers like Shane Dawson gaining audiences off of blackface. Once the death of George Floyd swept the nation through screens and took the people to the streets, those in power had no choice but to react and do something to appease the rest of the ruling class. While police were in the streets reacting with brutality, media-heads were in their offices crafting their own lens for the masses to be prescribed.
Instead of focusing on the brutalization of black and brown people, establishment journalists chose to highlight things they felt would rile up their audiences. This meant disproportionate focus on looting and vandalism without looking into the context of the situations covered. Rather than representing the reasons behind the protests and helping amplify the truths of everyday people reacting to the thumb of oppression, they chose to spin their own narratives.
On top of painting a false image, the ruling class co-opted the Black Lives Matter movement through a process French philosopher, Guy Debord, calls recuperation. In short, recuperation is when radical political and social issues are intercepted by those in power, watered down and mainstreamed, then reintegrated into society in order to maintain power and dominance (as seen with Mayor Bowser’s situation mentioned earlier).
The practice of recuperation has resulted in empty gestures in the form of inaccurate representation and failure to enact meaningful, beneficial policies for all oppressed groups. This inaccurate representation can be seen in many modern forms of media. Even the popular HBO Max show, Euphoria. Directed by Sam Levinson, Euphoria follows Rue, a biracial teenage girl with a drug addiction. As the eldest daughter of a recently widowed black mother, the realities of black culture would lead some to think the responsibilities of the household would fall on her, drug addiction or not. This belief, for me, comes from years of seeing my elder sister have the responsibilities of our family put onto her while my mom played two parental roles.
In a dynamic of that nature, mothers are often busy providing for the family, so household responsibilities are delegated to the eldest daughter. Although her mother’s role as a provider is explored, Rue’s responsibilities are rarely expressed in a way that would be representative of black daughters in those positions. Yes, her addiction does hinder her ability to live up to those responsibilities, but her character would drive home for a lot of people if they’d been explored, struggles and all. There are scenes in the second season that show Rue being a burden to her family, but the scope of her addiction drowns out the nuances that come with it. Now, I know, it seems weird to critique drug addiction’s scope in a show about drug addiction, but if the writers refuse to dive fully into their characters, especially their minority characters, then they lose an entire potential audience by misrepresenting the family dynamic that a lot of them may fall into.
I’m not saying Sam Levinson is deliberately doing the dynamic dirty, but without taking different family practices into account, he reaches that same outcome. Telling a Black story through a white lens is rarely done right. Can’t the same be said for everyone, though? I ask the question because of all of the subcultures not shown on screen. The ones that are shunned. The people in between. The diversity not represented.
Although the push to recuperate the liberation movement has led to more Black and brown people on screen, media-heads often rely on archetypes to represent them. These archetypes are usually either fair-skinned with Eurocentric features or dark-skinned with a strong, independent personality. Having representation isn’t necessarily a bad thing, but the exclusive use of archetypes ignores the subsets of people in between them. This ends up serving as an obstacle for representation rather than an aid.
This sentiment rings true for Kayla Nelson, a biracial woman residing in Chicago. When talking to me about her experience with representation, Nelson said, “Euro-American or westernized beauty standards are typically desired in today's society. As a biracial female, I do not have many of those features. There are so many white girls I look at and think wow, I seriously will NEVER look like that no matter how hard I try. And so I look to beauty standards that are common/desired in Black people, and all of the beauty standards are sexualized. Big butts, big boobs, curves but not too curvy. I don’t fit into that either personally because I am more petite fitting. But when I look at movies/media with predominantly black women, I can see it being more realistic for myself to adhere to some of the features of black women as opposed to white women. It’s easier for me to look at Rihanna or Sza or Kehlani and think okay yeah I could pull that off. But then when I look at Addison Rae or some of the other popular white girls in media, it’s sooo far out of reach for me to ever look anything close to that.”
Nelson falls into the in-betweens of media representation, having to opt for those who fall closest to her in terms of relatability. What really sticks out to me is the end of her statement, “It’s easier for me to look at Rihanna or Sza or Kehlani and think okay yeah I could pull that off. But then when I look at Addison Rae or some of the other popular white girls in media, it’s sooo far out of reach for me to ever look anything close to that.” The representation that she is able to embrace isn’t commonplace when compared to people like Addison Rae, as they often get more representation due to the media's historic favorability towards white people. This unbalanced representation is what we must steer away from if we want to create a society where everyone feels equally seen and heard.
This historic favorability of white people and select minority archetypes impacts a host of other subcultures, like the alternative community. Despite more and more people falling into the category of alternative, especially in communities of color, they have little, if any, proper representation in the media. This raises concern for FAMU student Jordan Booth, who says, “I want to see more alt black people represented in television and movies. Not just teenagers, but adults. Like who do alt black teens grow up to be? I also wish alt black musicians got more recognition and positive feedback. We have Willow, Pink Pantheress, Rico Nasty, (& plenty of other male artists but my mind is running a blank right now 😭) but even with these artists there’s still a stigma surrounding black people delving into different music genres being considered “that white people shit.” That’s so annoying to me because black people created literally every genre of music that exists today. More representation would help diminish that way of thinking.”
Booth is right, more representation would help eliminate this way of thinking. If people were conditioned to seeing more black alternative people/musicians in the media that they consume, they wouldn’t immediately see it as “that white people shit.” I mean think about how attached people get to the media they consume. If they constantly see certain archetypes without getting the chance to interact with those people in real life, their assumptions will be based in misrepresentation, allowing entire subcultures of people to fall into the cracks of the masses.
For transgender people, who have seen the most ridicule and disrespect from society by far, this lack of representation leaves the door open for violence. According to the Human Rights Campaign Foundation’s report “An Epidemic of Violence: Fatal Violence Against Transgender and Gender Non-Conforming People in the United States in 2021,” “at least 47 transgender and gender non-conforming people have been killed in the U.S. since the beginning of 2021.” Knowing the difficulty that comes with estimating numbers in reports like this, the number is likely higher. There are also thousands of trans people who are forced to live on the streets, due to both familial and financial reasons. Although correlation doesn’t necessarily mean causation, if you look at how society and the media have treated trans people, dots begin to connect.
Take Jubilee’s video, Do All Feminists Think The Same, for example. Although I don’t agree with how Jubilee formats their Spectrum series, the aforementioned episode opened my eyes to different perspectives. When the participants were asked if trans women were considered women, 50% of them were on the side of Strongly Disagree/Disagree and 50% were on the side of Strongly Agree. Among the split, all of the women were on the side of disagree and all of the men were on the side of agree. Following their initial split, participant Andy notes that, “I think we’re all positioned here based on our political beliefs and as for how we see LGBTQ.” Grace quickly fires back, saying “I think it’s also split between all the men are on that side and all the women are on this side. I know, being a woman, that there are certain things that we have to deal with as women that people who are not, you know, biologically women, don’t have to deal with.” As the discussion continues and both sides argue the idea of gender vs. sex, Leon calls the disagreers out on their misnotion of the two being the same. “I think there’s a lot of conflating of being a female versus being a woman. Being female is chromosomal, it’s what you’re born as. Being a woman is a societal construct.”
This issue of conflation only adds fuel to the fire, as seen with the sentiments boasted prior to Leon’s statement. When Johnathan brings up the point that transgender women deal with a different set of challenges, it is shot down. As a male, I can’t say that I understand the biological aspects of being a female, but I can empathize with the alienation that trans people face. The extent of society’s distaste towards trans people manifests in the lack of support and proper education on transgender individuals, both throughout history and in the present day. This distaste and alienation leaves them with little resources to navigate society as is, on top of more opportunities for danger. You can look at the disappearances of Isa Dessalines and Sacoya Cooper if you don’t believe me. Although Dessalines was found, Cooper is still missing.
While the support for trans rights is strong in pockets of media, society at large is still lagging behind. The moment this issue is addressed in a way that tries to solve the situation, a society indoctrinated by decades of media misrepresentation either refuses to bat an eye at it, virtue signals or actively suppresses it. The moment media attempts to properly represent transgender individuals, the indoctrinated society takes it as an attack on them. The moment the indoctrinated society works to actively understand and accept representation of transgender individuals (and minorities at large) is the moment we may see a difference in society’s treatment of them. Obviously this difference needs to be followed by legislation that explicitly protects transgender people and their rights, but this is a paper on media representation, not politics, so I digress. Media has a job of representing the ins-and-outs of the diversity it loves to flaunt, because everyday that it doesn’t is a day of hardship and potential violence it must take blame for. They aren’t oblivious to these ins-and-outs, so the least they can do is properly represent them.
You would think that the misrepresentation mentioned throughout this piece would be easy to spot. While there are a few obvious picks (we’re talking about the country that proudly claimed Birth of a Nation), misrepresentation is riddled across the media landscape. It can even be seen in some of today’s popular shows and movies.
Before diving into acute examples of misrepresentation in American media, it is important to touch on the obvious. Take films like The Blind Side and Hidden Figures. Despite being based on true stories of black plight, the lens focuses on the white characters and their efforts to alleviate said plight. Although the effort is noble, this focus minimizes the work done by characters like Michael Oher, Katherine Johnson, Mary Jackson and Dorothy Vaughn. Oher wasn’t just waiting to be housed by Leigh Anne Tuohy. Johnson, Jackson and Vaughn weren’t just waiting to be vouched for at NASA by Al Harrison, in fact, Harrison’s character was entirely fictional. They worked their asses off to get to those positions. So instead of having the lens focus on white saviors, the work of the black characters should have been at the center. Not only for proper representation, but for the sake of historical accuracy, as well. If people feel like a film did enough to satisfy them, even if it is based on a true story, what do you think the odds are that they’ll research the event it was based on?
If white savior complexes are the standard, it’ll be a lot harder for society to properly deal with black struggle. Take a look at the modern black neighborhood. Deprived of proper infrastructure, secure resources and long-term, career-defining jobs, these neighborhoods foster conditions for poverty, which leads to a host of other issues. Rather than properly acknowledging the root of those issues, society often chooses to blame the issues themselves for the conditions at hand. Their arguments are usually along the lines of ‘maybe if they got off Section 8 and stopped taking my tax dollars they wouldn’t be as lazy’ or ‘maybe if they stopped shooting at each other things wouldn’t be so bad.’ They don’t even begin to address the fact that these conditions are built into these environments. You may be able to blame white savior films for fostering a sort of false reality or mean-world syndrome among white people, but that’s another story.
Even if a few black people are able to escape the clutches of poverty, there are a thousand more who will be doomed to it. Unless you attack the systemic and structural issues that keep black people in chains, nothing will fundamentally change.
One of the issues that needs to be addressed again is the misrepresentation of black people through certain archetypes. Whether it be as a figure of lust, a criminal, comedic relief, a token, whatever, these misrepresentations only serve to reinforce stereotypes and distort the minds of consumers. This is evident in the media’s response to the 2020 Black Lives Matter protests. According to Erica Chenoweth and Jeremy Pressman’s article for the Harvard Radcliffe Institute, “When the Department of Homeland Security released its Homeland Threat Assessment earlier this month, it emphasized that self-proclaimed white supremacist groups are the most dangerous threat to U.S. security. But the report misleadingly added that there had been “over 100 days of violence and destruction in our cities,” referring to the anti-racism uprisings of this past summer. In fact, the Black Lives Matter uprisings were remarkably nonviolent. When there was violence, very often police or counterprotesters were reportedly directing it at the protesters.” The article continues, “Here is what we have found based on the 7,305 events we’ve collected. The overall levels of violence and property destruction were low, and most of the violence that did take place was, in fact, directed against the BLM protesters.” After further diving into the statistics, “In short, our data suggest that 96.3% of events involved no property damage or police injuries, and in 97.7% of events, no injuries were reported among participants, bystanders or police.” Despite these findings, mainstream news media outlets responded by framing the protests as riots. Social media has helped in unveiling the curtain by spreading real-time news from independent journalists and everyday citizens. But, work still needs to be done on a mass scale in order to truly combat media misrepresentation.
You would think it’d be easy to weed out the misrepresentation if it is so obvious, but since it’s ever-present in our culture, it sort of permeates its way into how people think. This can lead to more people having a white savior complex, or just being plain racist. Since this misrepresentation is ever-present in American media, people associate it with aspects and fundamentals of media and groups of people without acknowledging that it often manifests in the form of prejudice and stereotypes.
Think of the recent debacle with Dave Chappelle. When seeing a negative response from the LGBTQ+ community after misgendering a deceased transgender friend, Daphne Dorman, for a punchline, Chappelle got defensive. Rather than acknowledging the issues with his comments out of the gate, he said “As hard as it is to hear a joke like that, I’m telling you right now — Daphne would have loved that joke.” To some, this may be enough justification. But when it comes to a public platform, a “joke” like that enables audience members to think misgendering isn’t a big deal. As a result, there’s no secret as to why the LGBTQ+ community responded the way they did. This response has become more commonplace as people become less tolerant of disrespect toward the LGBTQ+ community. Yet, some comedians feel as though it has held them back in terms of crafting jokes. This is present in professions other than comedy, but you get the point. If you have a public platform and easier access to the media, you have to be ready to properly represent someone you’re talking about, whether you’re a comedian or not.
A society where racism, prejudice and misrepresentation are baked into what we consume is a society too often willing to turn the other cheek in the face of injustice. While this wasn’t the case following the deaths of George Floyd and Breonna Taylor back in 2020, take a look at 2022 and the picture is different. The response to the deaths of Floyd, Taylor and other black people at the dawn of the decade was something that shook the world. Fast forward through the recuperation of black liberation through false representation, however, and you’ll find that black death is something that is routinely downplayed. You can compare the disappearance of Gabby Petito to that of Jelani Day and find night and day differences. Petito’s disappearance captured the attention and efforts of the entire nation, and her body was found in just a few weeks. Day’s disappearance captured brief nationwide attention, but the efforts weren’t nearly as great. Although his body was found roughly a month after the initial disappearance, his mother is still looking for answers as to what happened to her son. You can also look at the nation’s response to Amir Locke’s death. Locke was a 22 year-old black man who was gunned down by the Minneapolis Police Department on February 2nd, 2022. He was laying on his couch when officers broke in with a no-knock warrant and opened fire after seeing a gun. No regard for whether the gun was legal, why Locke might have been holding it or the fact that his finger wasn’t on the trigger. Although Locke wasn’t named in the search warrant used to enter his apartment, police officer Mark Hanneman fired on him with no regard to the validity and severity of the situation. The Minneapolis Police Department once again played judge, jury and executioner. This would’ve elicited a response from the nation two years ago, but in the present day it didn’t receive nearly as much attention. I’m not sure if the MPD is trained to kill or if they attract bad apples, but I do know that the societal response to these actions won’t change if the ideas of misrepresentation continue to warp its mind. The more they turn a blind eye, the more minorities we will see slain without justice.
The odds of seeing black liberation in my lifetime are slim, but I do have hope for future generations. With the advent of the internet, my generation has been able to partially avoid the misrepresentation in traditional media. Instead, they have either been conditioned to it or radicalized by it online. On top of this, there has been a more in-depth interaction of races both online and in person. These interactions have opened those involved to the different struggles of races not their own, myself included. I wasn’t properly educated on the apartheid in Palestine until I was 19 years-old, so when my Palestinian friend told me about how the hospital he was born in was bombed back in high school, I wasn’t aware of the weight of the situation. Looking back, interactions like that helped shape my personal beliefs on the liberation of all oppressed people, opening my mind to different perspectives.
I don’t believe that the opening of minds alone can solve the issue of misrepresentation, but I do believe that it can lead to the dialogue that does. As more and more minority individuals utilize technologies to create their own media, they will be able to properly represent themselves in a way that counteracts the traditional narratives written against them. This can be seen with creatives like Kyra Horton, who tells her stories through an authentic black lens via poetry, writing and other mediums. There are also black-owned brands brands like Chicago’s A Put On Project that believe “the truth lies in the youth,” as expressed in their Truth Youth Beret. Now, I’m not sure if the accurate representation will simply drown out the misrepresentation, but I doubt it. It’s more intricate than that. I feel like the more people are exposed to proper representation and the ideas that come with it, misrepresentation will become clearer to our society, and subsequently less tolerated. This will only be possible when minority groups take control of their representation in mass and across the spectrum of all people instead of in pockets at the micro level. For proper representation across the board, there are many of you reading who likely need to understand what that means. I’m not insulting your intelligence, I just know that as an avid consumer of media, it is easy for things to get warped.
Take a look at a show like Chris Rock’s Everybody Hates Chris and compare it to Tyler Perry’s series of Madea films. While they are both considered comedies, they represent the black community in two distinctly different ways. Everybody Hates Chris follows Rock’s childhood in 1980’s Bedstuy, NY. This allowed the writers to explore the intricacies of being a black kid growing up in the area at the time, along with the inner workings of the black family. While there were exaggerated moments for the sake of comedy, there were always lessons that you could take away by the end of an episode.
For example, in the episode “Everybody Hates Easter,” Chris gets the chance to take his crush out on a date to the Easter dance after her old date bails. While he’s excited about the date, she ends up letting him know that plans are moving to her old church in Queens. This serves as a crucial plot point and gives an insight into black loyalty to particular places of worship. Of course Chris ends up tagging along, which leads to him serving as his crush’s right hand man in the pageant. By the end of the episode, though, he ends up losing the girl to the guy that bailed on her and getting caught for ditching his own church’s Easter event, expressing to the audience that it is important to stay supportive when it comes to your family. This was all done in around 20 minutes, teaching viewers a lesson and giving them insight into the black community through a comedic lens.
Perry’s Madea films take a vastly different approach, with one of the only similarities being the telling through a comedic lens. I was going to dedicate this section to dissecting the rights and wrongs of how Perry constructs his works and how they inadvertently hurt the black community, but I’ll leave that to The Boondocks. In season 3 episode 8, titled “Pause,” Perry is parodied by Winston Jerome, a playwright who runs a secret theatrical cult. As the episode opens, the main character Huey explains that “The typical Winston Jerome story starts with a beautiful, educated, professional black woman trapped in a troubled marriage with the brown-skinned bald dude from Law & Order… Then, a dude who looks like Shemar Moore shows up as the shirtless light-skinned gardener who just got out of jail. At first, she acts like she doesn’t like the light-skinned gardener, but eventually she gets to know him and sees his sensitive side. Being a good Christian woman, she gives her marriage one last chance because Jesus said so… Just when the brown-skinned dude from Law & Order is about to hit her, here comes the shirtless gardener. The woman and the gardener kiss, having found true love through Jesus.” As the scene concludes, the Madea parody character, Ma Dukes, enters and dances to the tune of booming closing music. Obviously The Boondocks’ intentions are satirical, but if you really look at Huey’s statement you may find that there’s some truth to it.
Diary of a Mad Black Woman inspired the statement due to the relationship between Helen (Kimberly Elise) and Orlando (Shemar Moore). In Meet The Browns, Brenda and Harry fall into the same molds as the professional black woman and light-skinned gardener (albeit Harry is not a gardener). Candace and Josh also fall into the roles in Madea Goes To Jail, with Josh’s wife serving as the antagonist instead. So do Lisa and Carlos in Madea’s Family Reunion. I could keep going, but you get the point. Perry’s films follow a particular formula with slight tweaks to create a different story. Since that formula is a constant, however, it misrepresents the very people he is trying to represent in his films. I don’t believe he is doing this intentionally (how does the saying go? “If it ain’t broke don’t fix it”), but I do believe that his formulaic writing allows for inadvertent misrepresentation of Black Americans.
Black Americans across the country enjoy and can resonate with a lot of Perry’s work, which puts him in the position of someone who can represent the people with proper community backing. But, when this formulaic representation becomes more obvious over time, issues begin to arise. I don’t know if Perry’s gotten lazy over the years or if he’s just cashing in on what works for him, but his continued use of a light-skinned male savior for a Black woman stuck in a marriage with an abusive dark-skinned man reinforces ideas of colorism and reliance on male figures to prosper. His characters do show off what it’s like to be an independent Black woman, and I do commend him for that, but even then he is pushing a positive stereotype that can lead to more stress and standards for Black women to live with. I don’t believe Perry is purposely trying to misrepresent the Black community, because there are some aspects that he gets right. For example, the theme of faith throughout his films is something that the community can resonate with. According to Pew Research Center, “Nearly eight-in-ten black Americans (79%) identify as Christian,” so his messages aren’t falling on deaf ears. When it comes to his characters, however, he often fails to dive into their intricacies, resulting in surface level personality traits and reinforced stereotypes.
When comparing Rock’s style of comedy and representation to Perry’s, the aforementioned intricacies are what set the two apart. Simply put, if you want to accurately represent a group, you must look into all of their layers, not just the ones that’ll get a quick laugh or boost ratings. I’m not saying that Rock is perfect or that Perry is the devil on Earth, I’m just saying that if you want to properly represent any group, you will have to look past the surface level and into their intricacies.
It isn’t easy to properly represent minority groups. It’s a task that requires a lot of work. We’re talking about outcasting decades of misrepresentation, both inside and outside of the media landscape. Instead of continuing to ignore the misrepresentation present all around us, though, I urge everyone reading or listening to take my words into consideration. Critique the media that you’re consuming, and begin to look for misrepresentation within it. From white savior films to faux-minstrelsy performances, forms of media that allow misrepresentation serve to skew society’s view of the groups it misrepresents, whether purposely or inadvertently. It is important to discard, or at the very least, critique them. If that is done and pieces of media that accurately represent minority groups are brought to the forefront, we may be able to begin dismantling the issues that stem from misrepresentation. Once again, it is not going to be easy. But if we want to change how we are viewed within the media landscape, we must combat the issue of representation.
Sources (in order)
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JT/Second Thought. (2022, February 18). “Whitewashing 101: How To Rewrite Black History.” YouTube.
Brown, Jay. Cooper, Tori. (2021). “An Epidemic of Violence: Fatal Violence Against Transgender and Gender Non-Conforming People in the United States in 2021.” Human Rights Campaign Foundation.
Jubilee. (2022, January 30). “Do All Feminists Think The Same.” YouTube
Campbell, Falycia. Clay, Jarrod. (2022, February 7). “Columbus Police believe woman last seen in August 2021 may be victim of foul play.” ABC 6 On Your Side.
Larson, Amy. (2022, March 9). “Missing woman found in Berkeley.” KRON4
Mandanas, Laura. (2017, January 12). “True Story Behind ‘Hidden Figures”.” AutoStraddle
Chenoweth, Erica. Pressman, Jeremy. (2020, October 20). “Black Lives Matter Protesters Were Overwhelmingly Peaceful, Our Research Finds.” Harvard Radcliffe Institute.
Romana, Aja. (2021, October 23). “What Chappelle gets wrong about trans people and comedy.” Vox.
Defranco, Philip. (2021, September 20). “What New Gabby Petito 911 Audio Reveals, Brian Laundrie’s Parents Raided, Pfizer for Kids, & More.” YouTube.
Chatman, Samantha. (2021, October 28). “Jelani Day update: Mother shows why she believes foul play was involved in son’s death.” ABC 7 Chicago.
Various authors. (Various dates). “The police killing of Amir Locke” MPR News.
Masci, David, Mohamed, Besheer. Smith, Gregory. (2018, April 23). “Black Americans more likely to be Christian, Protestant than US adults overall.” Pew Research Center.
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